Instructional Theories and Models

Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction was revolutionary in its time. But that time was nearly 80 years ago. It was built for military training—linear, rigid, objective-driven. It assumes the designer controls everything, the learner starts from zero, and outcomes are best achieved by following a prescribed sequence. That’s not how learning works anymore. Modern learners are rarely blank slates. They come with prior knowledge, personal context, and the ability to access what they need on demand. They’re not sitting passively, waiting for content to be “presented.” They’re navigating ambiguity, asking questions, collaborating, and applying knowledge in complex, unpredictable environments. That’s why I’ve moved away from traditional instructional design models like Gagné—and toward frameworks that reflect how people actually learn. I draw from Learning Experience Design (LXD), which blends learning science, user experience, and accessibility to create more engaging and emotionally resonant learning. I also pull from the 5E model, which prioritizes inquiry and exploration, and Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which builds flexibility and inclusivity into every part of the design. Models like Design Thinking and Agile Learning Design keep me grounded in iteration, learner feedback, and real-world relevance. And Bob Mosher’s Moment of Need Model reminds me that not all learning happens during training—it often happens in the workflow, under pressure, when support is needed most. I don’t follow any of these models religiously. I use what fits. Because the moment we box ourselves into one system, we stop designing for people and start designing for process. Gagné made sense in a world of chalkboards and overhead projectors. Today, we’re designing for mobile, social, immersive, and AI-powered experiences. That requires more flexibility, more empathy, and a willingness to break the mold when it no longer fits. Models are helpful. Dogma is not.

Student-Centered Learning Models: A Practical Visual Reference My teaching philosophy is grounded in what bell hooks calls engaged pedagogy, a student-centered model that begins with the recognition that learning thrives through mutual engagement. At its core, engaged pedagogy is informed by a unique theoretical mixture that includes, among others, Dewey’s theory of experiential learning, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, and Erikson’s psychosocial development theory. All of these theories reject what Paulo Freire refers to as the banking model of education, a model where teachers simply deposit knowledge into passive students. Instead, engaged pedagogy frames teaching as a relational, reciprocal process where the teacher doesn’t stand above the learner but alongside. And here’s what I find most powerful: when you add critical thinking to that mix (as hooks did), the entire framework gains structure. Critical thinking becomes the central node, the connective tissue that links reflection, engagement, and growth. Now, you might ask: What does this have to do with AI? Everything. Because you can’t effectively integrate AI into your classroom if you treat it as a bolt-on tool. Pedagogically sound AI integration requires a strong framework. One rooted in collaboration, inquiry, and student agency. That’s exactly what these student-centered models provide. Here’s my argument: if you want to use AI well in your teaching, you need to be creative within a structure that encourages engagement, critical thought, and participation. Otherwise, AI becomes a shortcut and shortcuts don’t build deep learning. But when AI is used within a framework like engaged pedagogy, it becomes a tool for amplifying curiosity, collaboration, and deeper thinking. That’s why I put together a new resource for you. It features four powerful learning models that align with this ethos of learning-by-doing and social constructivism: 1. Experiential Learning 2. Inquiry-Based Learning 3. Project-Based Learning 4. Game-Based Learning And I’ve included a fifth piece on critical thinking, which I believe should be the cross-disciplinary thread that ties all of these approaches together. Without critical thinking, none of these frameworks truly reach their potential. I compiled them into a single downloadable document completely free. My goal is simple: to support teachers who are navigating the evolving role of AI in education without losing sight of what good pedagogy actually looks like. References 1. hooks, bell. (2010). Teaching Critical Thinking: Practical Wisdom. Routledge. 2. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. Macmillan. 3. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press. 4. Erikson, E. H. (1969) Identity: Youth and Crisis. W. W. Norton & Company. 5. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum.

We talk a lot about ADDIE and SAM in instructional design, but I recently found myself wondering... is that it? Lately, I’ve been exploring other learning frameworks. Not because ADDIE or SAM don’t work, but because I’ve been feeling that itch. You know, the one that shows up when your curiosity kicks in and says, “what else is out there?” In that search, I came across two models that really made me pause. The first was the Six Disciplines of Breakthrough Learning (6Ds). It puts a sharp focus on ensuring that training translates into real business outcomes. One thing I loved was how clearly it outlined not just what should be built, but what happens after the learning ends...like coaching, support, and business impact tracking. Then I revisited the 70:20:10 model, which I’d heard of before but hadn’t really internalized. It frames learning as mostly experiential, a good bit social, and only a small portion formal. That breakdown has made me rethink how I structure learning environments and support strategies, especially beyond the “launch and leave” mentality I often take part in as a contractor. At the end of the day, frameworks are tools. They should serve the designer, the learner, and the business, not the other way around. I still lean on ADDIE often, but I’ve stopped treating it like gospel. A framework is only as useful as the person applying it with intention. Have you explored any learning frameworks beyond the usual suspects? What have you tried, and how did it shift your approach?

These six educational theorists laid the foundation for how we understand learning, development, and instruction today. Jean Piaget revolutionized education by mapping out cognitive stages, helping educators tailor instruction to children’s mental readiness. Lev Vygotsky emphasized the power of social interaction and scaffolding, introducing the Zone of Proximal Development as a guide for meaningful support. John Dewey championed experiential learning, advocating for classrooms that mirror real-life problem solving and democratic participation. Howard Gardner expanded our view of intelligence, validating diverse learner strengths and inspiring inclusive, differentiated instruction. B.F. Skinner’s behaviorist principles shaped classroom management and reinforcement strategies, while Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy offered a clear framework for designing objectives and assessing depth of understanding. Together, their theories continue to shape curriculum design, instructional methods, and inclusive practices across the globe. #FoundationsOfLearning

▶️ Pedagogy: Derived from the Greek words "paidos," meaning child, and "agogos," meaning leading, pedagogy refers to the art and science of teaching children. It is traditionally associated with teacher-centered instruction, where the teacher is the primary source of knowledge and students are passive recipients. ▶️ Andragogy: Coined by Malcolm Knowles, andragogy comes from the Greek words "andr," meaning man, and "agogos," meaning leading. It refers to the method and practice of teaching adult learners, emphasizing a learner-centered approach where adults bring their experiences and self-direction into the learning process. ▶️ Heutagogy: Heutagogy, or self-determined learning, extends andragogy by emphasizing the development of learner autonomy and capacity. Coined by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon, it encourages learners to determine what and how they learn, emphasizing the importance of self-reflection and the ability to learn independently. ▶️ Peeragogy emphasizes learning with and from peers. It's a co-learning model where students learn by teaching each other. ▶️ Geragogy caters specifically to the learning needs of elderly adults, focusing on lifelong learning and enrichment. ▶️ Cybergogy combines elements of both pedagogy and andragogy to facilitate learning in a virtual or digital environment. ▶️ Heuristagogy: Conceived by Dr. Victor L. Berardi, heuristagogy integrates the concept of heuristics into self-directed learning. It combines elements of heuristics (problem-solving techniques and learning from experience) with the principles of heutagogy, supporting learners in developing self-directed learning strategies that are both efficient and adaptive. Heuristagogy emphasizes the use of AI and Large Language Models (LLMs) to facilitate and support lifelong learning by focusing on satisficing (achieving satisfactory and sufficient outcomes) rather than optimization. Source: 1) Pedagogy, Andragogy, Heutagogy, and Heuristagogy: A Primer Knowledge Networks & THE Self-Organizing Learning Ecosystem June 22, 2024 THE+SOLE™ Institute 2) 6 Must Know Learning Theories that Shape 21st Century Instructional Design: Pedagogy, Andragogy, Heutagogy, Peeragogy, Geragogy, and Cybergogy Learning Theories By Anthony Miller