Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In (2006)

References (584)

1. Woman's Day, 27 November 1995. The continuing tension here with McDonald's still seen to be a pre-eminently global corporation is exemplified by the violent targeting of one of their outlets in Davos at the 2000 World Economic Forum. Going back further, in 1985, London Greenpeace organized an International Day of Action against McDonald's. Leaflets were distributed, which over the next few years became the basis for a libel trial that was to take two-and-a-half years, concluding in June 1997. The action taken against two com- munity activists in London became known as the McLibel Trial. This theme is discussed below in Chapter 11. 5 The Cambodia Daily, 13 July 1994.
2. In the early 1990s, Roland Robertson (Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture, Sage, London, 1992, pp. 173-4) used the concept advisedly. However, by the middle of the decade it unreservedly took a centre-place in his writings ('Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity', in Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash and Roland Robertson (eds), Global Modernities, Sage, London, 1995).
3. Steve Silberman, 'Just Say Nokia', Wired Magazine, vol. 7, no. 9, 1999, downloaded from www.wired. com/wired/archive. In 1998, of the 165 million mobile phones sold in the world -that is, more mobile tele- phones than cars and computers combined -Nokia manufactured 41 million units.
4. Scott Lash, Another Modernity: A Different Rationality, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, 1999, p. 1. While I am sympathetic to his notion of a 'groundless ground', the approach taken here however differs considerably from that taken by Lash. It neither searches for a second grounded modernity nor affirms the 'neo-world of technological culture' (p. 14).
5. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, Routledge, London, (1966), 1991, p. xv. 10 Ibid., p. xvii.
6. Basil Edward Hammond, Bodies Politic and their Governments, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1915, pp. 1-2.
7. See, for example, Otto von Gierke, Political Theories of the Middle Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1900.
8. Hammond, Bodies Politic, pp. 3 and 4. 14 Ibid., p. 4.
9. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism,Verso, London, 2nd edition, 1991. 16 The most widely read book of this kind was Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983. Anthony Smith was the only effective voice against this modernist trend. See his The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Blackwell, London, 1986. 17 For a good general survey of the most theoretical of these approaches, see Clyde Barrow, Critical Theories of the State, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1993.
10. See, for example, Jean-Luc Nancy, The Inoperative Community, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1991; and Elizabeth Frazer and Nicola Lacey, The Politics of Community, Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1993. 19 Of their voluminous writings, see, for example, Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990; Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993; and Ernest Gellner, Culture, Identity and Politics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987. 20 It is worth noting that three of the five theorists that I mentioned are included as central in Dennis Smith's study The Rise of Historical Sociology, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1991. Of the others, Bourdieu is a cultural anthropologist and Habermas is philosopher-social theorist. 21 Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community, Sage, London, 1996. The present book thus carries the related subtitle, Towards a Theory of Abstract Community, Vol. 2. 22 Jack Goody, The Interface Between the Written and the Oral, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987.
11. Walter Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word, Methuen, London, 1982; Elizabeth Eisenstein, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983; Florian Coulmas, The Writing Systems of the World, Blackwell, Oxford, 1989. 11 Ibid., Sources of Social Power, vol. 1, p. 1 (his italics).
12. Ibid., p. 13. Compare this to his the statement on page 1: 'We can never find a single bounded society in geographical or social space.' In the light of his own definition we clearly can find such a society. Why did he not just say that the status of the claim to define social space as a lived society is always a contingent and relative one? Societies are always cross-cut by other societies and social formations. By this definition we can also find his dreaded 'dimensions' or 'levels'. Just like 'sources of power' (his terms of abstraction) they can be useful analytical abstractions. 13 Ibid., p. 2. (his emphasis).
13. Ibid., emphasis added. 16 Ibid., p. 507.
14. Pierre Bourdieu's Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977) sets out the overall framework of his approach. Later important contributions include Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, Cambridge University Press, Harvard, 1984; Homo Academicus, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1988; The Logic of Practice, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990; and Language and Symbolic Power, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1991.
15. Pierre Bourdieu, In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology, Polity Press, Oxford, 1990, p. 135. 19 Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, p. 53.
16. Maurice Godelier, The Mental and the Material: Thought, Economy and Society, Verso, London, 1988, p. 20. 21 Ibid., pp. 21-2. By contrast, I will argue later (Chapter 5) that, in the spirit of Godelier's concern not to reduce 'the mental' to 'the material', kinship is central to the organization form of tribal society, and in this capacity bears back on the other modes of practice, including the organization of relations of production. That is not to say, however (pace Godelier), that kinship is the basis of the mode of production. 22 Derek Robbins, The Work of Pierre Bourdieu, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1991, pp. 82-4.
17. Pierre Bourdieu, In Other Words: Essays towards a Reflexive Sociology, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990, p. 73. 24 Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, Harper & Row, New York (1954-5) 1977, pp. 19ff. 25 Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1984, Chapter 2.
18. Anthony Giddens, A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism, vol. 1: Power, Property and the State, Macmillan, London, 1981.
19. Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence: Volume Two of a Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1985. 29 Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1991.
20. Anthony Giddens, Runaway World: How Globalization is Reshaping our Lives, Profile Books, London, 2nd edn, 2002. By the time he reaches his study of globalization, his original method barely informs the analysis. As with The Transformation of Intimacy, most of the work on the structuring of society-in-dominance has been dropped. See Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1992.
21. Giddens, Contemporary Critique, p. 90.
22. Derek Gregory, 'Presences and Absences: Time-Space Relations and Structuration Theory', in David Held and John B. Thompson (eds), Social Theory of Modern Societies: Anthony Giddens and his Critics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989, p. 207.
23. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, Tavistock Publications, London, 1970, p. xx.
24. John Benjamins, Amsterdam, 1989; Etienne Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Sheed and Ward, London (1955) 1980.
25. See Anna L. Peterson, Being Human: Ethics, Environment and Our Place in the World, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2001, Chapter 5.
26. Caroline Walker Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1987, plate 2.25.
27. John L. Esposito, Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002, pp. 5-6, 73.
28. Aziz Al-Azmeh, Islam and Modernities, Verso, London, 2nd edn, 1996, pp. 151-2.
29. Andrew Vincent, Theories of the State, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1987, Chapter 3. 11 For an example of a commodity market sustained by outsiders, see Clifford Sather's writing on sea-nomadism (The Bajau Laut: Adaption, History, and Fate in a Maritime Fishing Society of South-Eastern Sabah, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1997).
30. This is implicitly a critique of the postmodernists for the missing middle in their analysis of integrative forms and ontological categories as socially structured. See, for example, Igor Kopytoff, 'The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as a Process', in Arjun Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986. 13 On the moral economy of modernism, see David Cheal, The Gift Economy, Routledge, London, 1988. 14 Marcel Mauss, The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London (1925), 1974. 15 Maurice Godelier, The Enigma of the Gift, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1999.
31. Annette B. Weiner, Inalienable Possessions: The Paradox of Keeping-While-Giving, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1992; C.A. Gregory, Savage Money: The Anthropology and Politics of Commodity Exchange, Harwood Academic Publishers, Amsterdam, 1997. See also his much more technical book, Gifts and Commodities, Academic Press, London, 1982. 17 Mauss, The Gift, p. 1.
32. Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, (1922) 1972. Less than a century later, after two globally enforced reincarnations in less than a century, Kaiser Wilhelm Land is now part of the independent nation-state of Papua New Guinea.
33. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship, Beacon Press, Boston (1949), 1969, cited by Godelier, The Enigma of the Gift, on p. 20. 20 The phrase comes from Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics, Tavistock Publications, London, 1974, p. 169. 21 Pierre Bourdieu, Algeria, 1960: The Disenchantment of the World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1979, p. 10.
34. Geoff Sharp, 'Constitutive Abstraction and Social Practice', Arena, 70, 1985, pp. 48-82. See also Cheal, The Gift Economy, pp. 20-5, 41-2, 57-60, on problems in generalizing Bourdieu's claim of temporal separa- tion and calculation of interest.
35. Bourdieu, Algeria, p. 22.
36. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1972) 1987, p. 95.
37. Arjun Appadurai, 'Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value', in Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things, p. 13. 26 The description of the kwaimatnie and the man crying comes from Godelier, The Enigma of the Gift, pp. 125-7.
38. Appadurai, 'Commodities and the Politics of Value', p. 13, his emphases. 28 Ibid., p. 12.
39. Lukács, cited in Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, p. 171, cited in Appadurai, 'Commodities and the Politics of Value', p. 12. Georg Lukács is, incidentally, taken radically out of context. Appadurai in turn takes Bourdieu's critique of the subjective out of context, forgetting Bourdieu's double-sided critique of the subjective-objective abstraction. In the next passage on from that cited, Bourdieu writes: 'In reducing the econ- omy to its objective reality, economism annihilates the specificity located precisely in the socially maintained discrepancy between the misrecognized or, one might say, socially repressed, objective truth of economic activ- ity, and the social representation of production and exchange' (p. 172). This critique might equally apply to Appadurai's culturalism.The trouble, however, with Bourdieu's return critique that he is not writing about 'objec- tive truth' at all -and certainly not about the structures of exchange. He writes about his own subjectivist ver- sion of a 'truth' that runs through modern Western thought, perhaps beginning with John Locke and Adam Smith: the ideology that reciprocity and interest are equally the two sides of every economic exchange. 30
40. Weiner, Inalienable Possessions, pp. 28ff. For an elaboration of what I mean by abstract reciprocity, see Chapter 13.
41. Oxford University Press, London, 1922) writes about many valuables -the rings of kings, the breastplates of high priests, amulets of gold, talismans of silver, and magical jewels galore, from those set with diamonds to those of beaver's teeth -but with ne'er a mention of crowns. The medieval Christian condemnation of engraved talismans that thus limited European crown-making to secular crafting is perhaps part of the explanation. 45 Taylor (The Glory of Regality, p. 63) certainly thought it to be real, commenting on its 'exquisite beauty'. 46 The crown as synecdoche for the institution of monarchy continues on today, but more as dead metaphor than as an attribution of power to the object of the crown itself. Perhaps a partial counter to this proposition can be found in the spirtualist side of neo-medievalism, fringe revivalist groups who attempt to relive their sense of the past.This sensibility is evidenced in magic-historical or science-fiction literature such as Raymond E. Feist, Shards of a Broken Crown, BCA HarperCollins, London, 1998. 47 'Crowns and Diamonds: The Making of the Crown Jewels', exhibition from 'The Royal Collection © Her Majesty the Queen'. It is indicative that She has to resort to ©, the globalized symbol of intellectual property protection. Going back much further, it should be remembered that in 1761 George III sold seats in the nave galleries for his coronation. James I sold knighthoods and rights to monopolize trade.
42. David Breeze and Graeme Munro, The Stone of Destiny: Symbol of Nationhood, Historic Scotland, Edinburgh, 1997, p. 41.
43. Harold T. Barrow, Guarding the Crown Jewels, Uplift Books, Croydon, 1947, p. 7. 50 Ibid., p. 8.
44. Ian Hay, Their Name Liveth: The Book of the Scottish National War Memorial, Trustees of the Scottish National war Memorial, Edinburgh, 1931, reprinted 1985, p. 100.
45. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1966, p. 15. 53 Ibid., p. 296.
46. Jack Goody, The Domestication of the Savage Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977, pp. 7-8. 55 This becomes dramatically more complicated in tribal settings that, with the interpenetration of other modes of knowledge, explain themselves in terms of modern forms of categorization, for example, in terms of anthropological concepts such as 'tribe', 'moiety', 'reciprocal exchange', etc.
47. Thus, Fred R. Myers (Pintupi Country, Pintupi Self, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1991) describes one of the dominant symbolic analogies of Pintupi life as 'holding': 'holding the child at the breast' (kanyininpa yampungka), p. 247.
48. Elizabeth G. Traube, Cosmology and Social Life: Ritual Exchange amongst the Mambai of East Timor, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986, pp. 6-7. 58 Ibid., p. 14.
49. Nonie Sharp, Stars of Tagai: The Torres Strait Islanders, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra, 1993, p. 75.
50. David E. Sutton, Memories Cast in Stone: The Relevance of the Past in Everyday Life, Berg, Oxford, 1998.
51. See Peter Burke, A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot, Polity Press, Cambridge, ch. 5. 62 Solomon Ibn Gabirol, A Crown for a King, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998, pp. 48, 50. The confes- sional meditation is still printed in Sephardic prayer books for the Day of Atonement and used by North African Jewish communities.
52. Ibid., pp. 48, 50. This has been bestowed on the body in all its weakness: 'I am mud, worms, a bucket of guilt and shame, a mute stone', p. 54. 64 Paper to the Anthropological Association of Finland, May 2000: and her Remembering Karelia: A Family's Story of Displacement during and after the Finnish Wars, Berghahn Books, New York, 2004. See also Chapter 3 above on 'Levels of Integration' and different modalities of the face-to-face. 65 Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990, p. 169. 66 This is one of those exceptions to the injunction against neologism. I am indebted to Jukka Siikala for long conversations about the problems of placing kinship.
53. The Scotsman, 30 January 1969; The Evening Standard, 17 July 1969.
54. Bank of England archives: ADM 10/45 Going off the Gold Standard, 1931 Press Cuttings 1931-32 (emphasis added).
55. Ibid. 24 While the electronic means of communication made a difference, again it depended upon an extensive development in the relations of exchange. Thomas Crump's discussion of the 'pure-money complex' (The Phenomenon of Money, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1981, Chapter 12), that is, of transactions performed 'purely in terms of time and money', goes too far to suggest that such complexes characterize all societies, but it is instructive.
56. Indicatively Karl Marx (Capital: Vol. 1, Progress Publishers, Moscow [1887], 1977, p. 129), writes 'Only insofar as paper money represents gold, which like all other commodities has value, is it a symbol of value'. 26 Lewis Mandel (The Credit Card Industry, Twayne Publishers, Boston, 1990) shows for example how the credit card developed over the period from local bankcard experiments in the 1940s, but the shift really took off with the systematization of computerized codification.
57. Jan Pahl, Invisible Money: Family Finances in the Electronic Economy, Policy Press, Bristol, 1999.
58. A. Cornford, cited in Susan Strange, Mad Money, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1998, p. 30.
59. Arjun Appadurai,'Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value', in Appadurai, (ed)., The Social Life of Things, p. 50.
60. Elizabeth Traube, Cosmology and Social Life: Ritual Exchange among the Mambai of East Timor, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986, pp. 55-6.
61. Goody, The Logic of Writing; also his The Domestication of the Savage Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977; and The Interface between the Written and the Oral, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987. 32 Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis, Text-Made Text, Common Ground Publishing, Altona, 2003, pp. 10-11. 33 Ibid., p. 11.
62. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, Verso, London, 2nd edn, 1991, p. 36.
63. Hagen Schulze, States, Nations and Nationalism: From the Middle Ages to the Present, Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, MA, 1986, p. 129. 36 On the concept of 'chosen peoples', see Anthony D. Smith, Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003.
64. Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992, p. 23. 38 Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997, p. 7. 39 Ibid. p. 151.
65. Ingjerd Hoëm, 'Processes of Identification and the Incipient National Level: A Tokelau Case', Social Anthropology, vol. 7, no. 3, 1999, p. 291.
66. Cited in Anthony Giddens, A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism, Macmillan, London, 1981, p. 36. Giddens frames his discussion through Heidegger, saying that,'The temporality of Dasein, the human being and that of the institutions of society in the longue durée are grounded in the constitutive temporality of all Being … there are at least five features of the human subject that distinguish human existence as peculiarly historical' (p. 34).
67. 9 Ibid. 10 For an illuminating discussion of the lineages of this dualism, see Peter Rigby, 'Time and Historical Consciousness: The Case of the Ilparakuyo Maasai', in Diane Owen Hughes and Thomas R.Trautmann eds, Time: Histories and Ethnologies, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1995.
68. Thomas R. Trautmann, 'Indian Time, European Time', and Nancy M. Farriss, 'Remembering the Future, Anticipating the Past: History,Time, and Cosmology among the Maya of Yucatan', both in Hughes and Trautmann (eds), Time.
69. Tony Swain, A Place for Strangers: Towards a History of Australian Aboriginal Being, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, p. 18.
70. Elizabeth Traube, Cosmology and Social Life: Ritual Exchange among the Mambai of East Timor, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986, pp. 14-15. 14 Discussed in Anthony Aveni, Empires of Time: Calendars, Clocks and Cultures, Basic Books, New York, 1989, Chapter 2, citation from p. 48.
71. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977, p. 105, (his emphasis).
72. Using the phrase that Ben Anderson brought to the fore in rewriting Walter Benjamin's work on tempo- rality.
73. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, Verso, London, 2nd edn, 1991.
74. Fred R. Myers, Pintupi Country, Pintupi Self, Sentiment, Place and Politics among Western Desert Aborigines, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1991, p. 48. 18 For an illuminating illustration of this process of confrontation, see Chinua Achebe's novel, Arrow of God, Heinemann, London, 1964; discussed as length in Elias, Time, pp. 164-84.
75. Agnes Heller, Renaissance Man, Schocken Books, New York, 1978, p. 125. See also Chapter 6 in the same book, 'Time and Space: Past Orientedness and Future Orientedness'. 20 Both examples, including the quote, are from Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1983, p. 11.
76. Richard Sennett, Flesh and Stone: The Body and the City in Western Civilization, Faber and Faber, London, 1994, pp. 204-5.
77. C.A. Gregory, Savage Money: The Anthropology and Politics of Commodity Exchange, Harwood Academic Publishers, Amsterdam, 1997, pp. 213, 224-31. 23 Ibid., p. 226.
78. David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World, Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA, 1983, pp. 241 and 340. 25 The concept of 'world-time' is adapted from Wolfram Eberhard, Conquerors and Rulers, E.J. Brill, Leiden, revised edition, 1965. 26 On preaching time, as well as merchant, market and schooling time from the end of the late-medieval period see Gerhard Dohrn-van Rossum, The History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1996, chs 8-9.
79. Duncan, The Calendar; Arno Borst, The Ordering of Time: From Ancient Computus to the Modern Computer, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1993.
80. Clark Blaise, Time Lord: Sir Sandford Fleming and the Creation of Standard Time, Vintage Books, New York, 2000.
81. Michio Kaku, Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the Tenth Dimension, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.
82. Helen (Verran) Watson, Singing the Land, Signing the Land, Deakin University, Geelong, 1989, Chapter 1;
83. and Helen Verran, 'A Story about Doing "The Dreaming''', Postcolonial Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 149-64.
84. Frank Lestringant, Mapping the Renaissance World, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1994, p. 4.
85. Alessandro Scafi, 'Mapping Eden: Cartographies of the Earthly Paradise', in Denis Cosgrove, Mappings, Reaktion Books, London, 1999.
86. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years,Vintage, London, 1998. On the colonial geo-political imaginary, see Walter D. Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges and Border Thinking, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2000. 34 Andro Linklater, Measuring America: How the United States was Shaped by the Greatest Land Sale in History, HarperCollins, London, 2002. 35
87. Anderson, Imagined Communities, p. 9.
88. Ken Alder, The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey that Transformed the World, Little, Brown, London, 2002, p. 1.
89. Kaku, Hyperspace; Martin Dodge and Rob Kitchin, Mapping Cyberspace, Routledge, London, 2001;
90. Margaret Wertheim, The Pearly Gates of Cyberspace: A History of Space from Dante to the Internet, Doubleday, Sydney, 1999.
91. Liisa Malkki, 'Context and Consciousness: Local Conditions for the Production of Historical Thought and National Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania', in Richard G. Fox (ed.), Nationalist Ideologies and the Production of National Cultures, American Ethnography Society, Washington DC, 1990.
92. Arjun Appadurai, 'Dead Certainty: Ethnic Violence in the Era of Globalization', in Birgit Meyer and Peter Geschiere (eds), Globalization and Identity: Dialectics of Flow and Closure, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, 1999, pp. 318-19.
93. Mary Douglas, Natural Symbols, Explorations in Cosmology, The Cresset Press, London, 1970, p. xiv.
94. M.E. Durham, Some Tribal Origins, Laws and Customs of the Balkans, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1928, Section III, 'Tattooing and Symbols Tattooed'. 10 Personal correspondence, Kate Cregan, November 2000.
95. Marja-Liisa Swantz with Salome Mjema and Zenya Wild, Blood, Milk and Death: Bodily Symbols and the Power of Regeneration among the Zaramo of Tanzania, Bergin & Garvey, Westport, CT, 1995. 12 Mentioned in Chapter 4 in the discussion of the face-to-face.
96. Antoine de Baecque, The Body Politic: Corporeal Metaphor in Revolutionary France, 1770-1800, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 1997, p. 2. The image also serves as a prelude to the contemporary images of globalization discussed at the beginning of Chapter 11 below.
97. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1977. 15 Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1984, pp. 122ff. 16 Geoff Sharp, 'Constitutive Abstraction', Arena, 70, 1985, pp. 48-82.
98. Analogical, genealogical and mythological relations are differently abstracted modes of embodiment (sit- uated, if you like, on a vertical axis), while consanguinal, ritual, perceptual and convivial relations are modali- ties of the face-to-face (situated on a horizontal axis of different social settings).
99. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977, pp. 34-8.
100. While this distinction is useful, using it here does not imply any sympathy for Bourdieu's over-emphasis upon self-interest or group-interest as the motivating basis of action.
101. Douglas, Natural Symbols, p. 8.
102. Maurice Godelier, The Making of Great Men: Male Domination and Power Among the New Guinea Baruya, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, pp. 10-11; Pierre Bourdieu, 'The Kabyle House or the World Reversed' in Algeria 1960, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1979. 21 Godelier, Making of Great Men, pp. 9-10.
103. Douglas, Natural Symbols, pp. 10-11.
104. René LeMarchand, Rwanda and Burundi, Pall Mall Press, London, 1970, p. 33. On the importance of milk in Rwandan tribal society including gift exchange and marriage ceremonies, see Jacques J. Maquet, The Premise of Inequality in Ruanda, Oxford University Press, London, 1961. 24 From the collection of Queen Elizabeth II, England: 'The Kings Head: Charles I. King and Martyr'. Interestingly, and commonly, James is named as 'James VI and James I'. Because James I ascended to the throne of England as James VI of Scotland, the modern curators of the travelling exhibition in Scotland, shown at the Palace of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh, March 2000, felt it necessary to accent his Scottish heritage. 25 Tate Gallery collection, London (T02020).
105. William Ferguson, The Identity of the Scottish Nation: An Historic Quest, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 1998, Chapter 3. See also Alfred P. Smith, Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland A.D. 80-1000, Edinburgh Press, Edinburgh, 1984, pp. 70ff. on the complexity of genealogy in the 'Pictish King-Lists'. 27 Ferguson, ibid., p. 5.
106. Edvvard Forset, A Comparative Discovrse of the Bodies Natvral and Politiqve, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, Amsterdam, (1606) 1973, folio 38. 29 From the collection of Queen Elizabeth II, 'The King's Head', Palace of Holyroodhouse.
107. Douglas, Natural Symbols, p. 158. For a discussion of the way in which in France this separation of private spaces, first limited to the bourgeoisie, spread after World War II to the working class, see Antoine Prost, 'Public and Private Space in France', in Antoine Prost and Gerard Vincent (eds), A History of Private Life, vol. 5, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991.
108. Fred Myers, Pintupi Country, Pintupi Self: Sentiment, Place and Politics among Western Desert Aborigines, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1991, pp. 228-33.
109. Bryan S. Turner, The Body and Society: Explorations in Social Theory, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1984, p. 7.
110. Donna J. Haraway, Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.FemaleMan©_Meets_OncoMouse™: Feminism and Technoscience, Routledge, New York, 1997.
111. Anne Balsamo, Technologies of the Gendered Body: Reading Cyborg Women, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1996; and Turner, The Body and Society, pp. 30 and 109. For an interesting confirmation of this development by one of its defenders see Bob Mullan, The Mating Trade, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1984, p. 2. He says: 'Finally, the critics seem to forget that the introduction industry is an industry; the primary terms are supply and demand, and profit ... it is not a social service, except indirectly, but not by intention. The introduction industry is no more inherently wicked than, say, ... the car trade.' 35 Turner, The Body and Society, p. 110. 36 Ibid., p. 8.
112. See Kenneth Burke, The Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action,Vintage Books, New York, 1957, pp. 96-7.
113. The Guardian, 16 March 2000. Her last single, released just before she died, was called 'Set Me Free'.
114. Rosalind Coward, Female Desire: Women's Sexuality Today, Paladin Books, London, 1984, pp. 43-4.
115. Julia Kristeva, Strangers to Ourselves, Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1991; Richard Sennett, Flesh and Stone: The Body and the City in Western Civilization, Faber and Faber, London, 1994. 41 Ibid., Sennett, Flesh and Stone, the last sentences of his book, p. 376. 42 For one example of this see Reinke, Leanne, 'Utopia in Chiapas? Questioning Disembodied Politics', in
116. James Goodman (ed.), Protest and Globalisation: Prospects for Transnational Solidarity, Pluto Press, Sydney, 2002. Notes
117. The use of qualifiers such as tribal, traditional and modern continues to be done here as ontologically defining rather than just as loose adjectives. This is more than a matter of definitional consistency. When Feliks Gross (The Civic and Tribal State: The State, Ethnicity and the Multiethnic State, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1998) uses the term 'tribal state' to apply to states such as Nazi Germany espousing racist ideologies, he confuses ideology with social form and uses the term 'tribal' as politically pejorative. Thus, when we get to his chapter on 'African Tribal Traditional States' he has to distinguish them as tribal-traditional even when they are dominated by modernism, and to acknowledge that they were not always characterized by racism. 2 For an account of different rationalities of the state in ancient Greece, Renaissance Italy and Absolutist Europe, see Christian Reus-Smit, The Moral Purpose of the State: Culture, Social Identity, and Institutional Rationality in International Relations, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1999, Chapter 3.
118. Michael Herzfeld, The Social Production of Indifference, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1992. p. 10. 4 An earlier draft of this passage appeared as part of a chapter written with Hugh Emy in Paul James (ed.), The State in Question, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1996.
119. David Easton, The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science, Alfred Knopf, New York, 1953, p. 108.
120. Ibid., pp. 112-13.
121. Peter Evans, Dietrich Reuschemeyer and Theda Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985.
122. John A. Hall and G. John Ikenberry, The State, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1989.
123. 9 Most of the well-known neo-Marxists bent over backwards not to over-generalize their claims and not reify the state, not to treat the state structures as things. For example, going back to Nicos Poulantzas, he writes: 'it is precisely one of the merits of Marxism that ... it thrust aside the grand metaphysical flights of so-called polit- ical philosophy -the vague and nebulous theorizings of an extreme generality and abstractness that claim to lay bare the great secrets of History, the Political, the State, and Power' (State, Power, Socialism,Verso, London, 1980, p. 20). However, as later Marxists pointed out, Poulantzas somehow thought he could do this in the abstract, hardly referring to actually existing states to illustrate his general arguments.
124. Judith Allen, 'Does Feminism Need a Theory of "the State"?', in Sophie Watson (ed.), Playing the State, Verso, London, 1990, p. 22. 11 Bob Jessop, State Theory, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990, p. 366.
125. Clyde Barrow, Critical Theories of the State, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison,WI. 1993, pp. 144-5.
126. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1991, p. 459.
127. Michel Foucault, 'Governmentality', in Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller (eds), The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991, p. 104. 15 Ibid., p. 103.
128. Jean Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992, pp. 280-6.
129. John Hinkson, 'The Postmodern State', in P. James (ed.), The State in Question, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1996. 18
130. Stephen Crook, Jan Pakulski and Malcolm Waters, Postmodernization: Change in Advanced Society, Sage, London, 1992, pp. 103-4.
131. Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power: Vol. 1, A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D. 1760, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, Chapters 3 and 4, with the one outstanding exception to this generalization being the Egyptians, 'the one near-unitary society in the ancient world' (p. 108). 20
132. Patricia Springborg, Royal Persons: Patriarchal Monarchy and the Feminine Principle, Unwin Hyman, London, 1990. 21 The Scotsman, 22 May 2000.
133. See Chapter 4 above, in the section entitled 'Reciprocity as the Dominant Mode of Exchange'. If this right, it explains why mythologies of kings bearing gifts, such as to Bethlehem, take on a double ambiguity, and in this case a spectacular condensation of meaning. 23 On the election of the king, see Arthur Taylor, The Glory of Regality: An Historical Treatise on the Anointing and Crowning of the Kings and Queens of England,Taylor, London, 1820, book 1. On the simultaneously sacred and secular foundations of kingship, see Reinhard Bendix, Kings or People: Power and the Mandate to Rule, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1978, Chapter 2. This classical book, although written with different themes of focus to the present study, provides an overview of field of kingship with its empirical descriptions and careful generalizations providing an excellent counterpoint to my tendency to overgeneralize.
134. See D.L. Ashiman (ed.) Folklore and Mythology website, University of Pittsburgh, accessed 2003. There are published other tales of the Aarne-Thompson type 1620 about kings and images of 'invisibility' sourced from Sri Lanka, Turkey and India.
135. William Shakespeare, Richard II, Act II, Scene 2, cited in C.A. Bouman, Sacring and Crowning: The Development of the Latin Ritual for Anointing Kings and the Coronation of an Emperor before the Eleventh Century, J.B. Wolters, Gröningen, 1957, p. ix. The assertions of that statement did not, of course, mean that the sacredness of the monarch was unambiguously unassailable, but such statements nevertheless did continue well into the twentieth century. See, for example, Jocelyn Perkins (The Crowning of the Sovereign of Great Britain and the Dominions Overseas, Methuen, London, 1937, p. 15) where in describing the crowning of Edward VII in 1902, she says, 'the tie uniting King Edward VII to the hearts of his subjects was something more enduring, more sacred than had ever existed before'. However, keep in mind that at the time of writing she was the Sacrist of Westminster Abbey.
136. Bouman, ibid., pp. 71ff.
137. Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Pristine Culture of Capitalism: A Historical Essay on the Old Regimes and Modern States, Verso, London, 1991, p. 48. 28 Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1985, p. 83.
138. 'Post-tribal history' in this instance is understood as particular histories rather than as a generic con- cept. It refers to the history of those particular societies that are no longer formed in the dominance of tribal- ism. Thus, for example, in parallel with the argument made earlier in relation to kings, states develop in tribal-traditional societies that develop some form of abstracting technique for recording and codifying mem- ories such as listing or writing.Thus the mode of organization of the state depends upon a more abstract mode of communication than orality.
139. John Breuilly, Nationalism and the State, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2nd edn, 1994.
140. Anthony D. Smith,'Memory and Modernity: Reflections on Ernest Gellner's Theory of Nationalism', Nations and Nationalism, vol. 2, no. 3, 1996, p. 386. 32 Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1986, p. 131. 33 Ibid., p. 134.
141. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, Verso, London, 2nd edn, 1991, p. 36.
142. Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller (eds), The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991. 36 On the abstraction of print and its relation to intellectual practice see Geoff Sharp, 'The Idea of the Intellectual and After', in Simon Cooper, John Hinkson and Geoff Sharp (eds), Scholars and Entrepreneurs, Arena Publications, Melbourne, 2002.
143. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, Verso, London (1983), 2nd edn, 1991. Ernest Gellner, Nationalism, Orion Books, London, 1998; Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence: Volume Two of a Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1985.
144. Ernest Gellner, 'Do Nations have Navels?', Nations and Nationalism, vol. 2, no. 3, 1996, pp. 366-70;
145. Anthony D. Smith, 'Memory and Modernity: Reflections on Ernest Gellner's Theory of Nationalism', Nations and Nationalism, vol. 2, no. 3, 1996, pp. 371-88.
146. Cited in Gareth Knapman,'Regionalism, a Form of Proto-Nationalism in Acehnese Politics', Honours Thesis, Department of Politics, Monash University, 2001, p. 9.
147. An apology: I started to read this book in a second-hand bookshop in Edinburgh, but did not have enough money to purchase the volume at this time. By the time I had accrued enough money to make the book mine, the capitalist market had already whisked it away, along with all its publication details. The university libraries of Edinburgh and Melbourne do not have a copy.
148. Abdalla Omar Mansur, 'The Nature of the Somali Clan System', in Ali Jimale Ahmed (ed.), The Invention of Somalia, Red Sea Press, Lawrenceville, 1995. 6 It is actually the projection back upon originating social formation from (different) positions of abstrac- tion within (different dominant ontological formations). Compare the biblical creation story of Adam and Eve and the Freudian creation story of the totem and taboo: the first is sacred traditional Truth, the second is metaphorical modern 'truth' with a hint of pre-anthropological myth-making.
149. Benedict Anderson, 'Eastern and Western Nationalism', Arena Journal, New Series no. 16, 2000/1, pp. 121-31.
150. 'England' might be one counter-example, but prior to the nineteenth century I would still call it a tradi- tional nation (genealogically extended but bound by class-based delimitations) rather than a modern nation. 9 This is the thesis put forward by Tom Nairn in The Break-Up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism, Verso, London (1973), 2nd edn, 1981. It also bore back on the empires themselves. For an elegant exposition of the case of England, see Krishan Kumar, The Making of English National Identity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003.
151. Anderson, Imagined Communities, p. 135.
152. Ernest Gellner, 'The Coming of Nationalism and its Interpretation', in Gopal Balakrishnan (ed.), Mapping the Nation, Verso, London, 1996.
153. Giddens, Nation-State and Violence, 1985, p. 112.
154. Anderson, Imagined Communities, p. 50. 14 Ibid., p. 62.
155. Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World, Zed Books, London, 1986, p. 21. 16 Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1993.
156. Partha Chatterjee, 'Whose Imagined Community?', in Gopal Balakrishnan (ed.), Mapping the Nation, Verso, London, 1996, p. 217.
157. Ashis Nandy, Time Warps: The Insistent Politics of Silent and Evasive Pasts, Permanent Black, Delhi, 2001. 19 Mahmood Mamdani, 'From Conquest to Consent as the Basis of State Formation: Reflections on
158. Rwanda', New Left Review, no. 216, 1996, pp. 3-36;
159. Jacques J. Maquet, The Premise of Inequality in Ruanda, Oxford University Press, London, 1961, pp. 124-8, 148-52.
160. Mamdani, 'From Conquest to Consent', p. 12. See also Wm. Roger Louis, Ruanda-Urundi: 1884-1914, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1963, part 2.
161. See René LeMarchand, Rwanda and Burundi, Pall Mall Press, London, 1970, on the complications of using the terminology of caste and class in relation to the Tutsi. 22 Despite these putative embodied differences, witnesses after the 1994 massacres talked of the execu- tioners often demanding identity cards to determine if they were killing the right people. 23 Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of the Nation, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1994.
162. Jean-Pierre Chrétien cited in Gérard Prunier, The Rwandan Crisis: History of a Genocide, Columbia University Press, New York, 1997, p. 36. 25 Ibid., Prunier.
163. See David Newbury, Kings and Clans, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1991, Chapter 4. The significance of these inter-relations between Hutu and Tutsi should not be lost in the modern confirmation of caste-tribe difference.
164. The RPF, which again reversed the power hierarchy and returned the Tutsi to government in the wake of the 1994 genocide, had been formed in 1987 in Uganda. The unevenness of the process and how it spread beyond the borders of one nation-state is indicated by the fact that the RPF leader, Paul Kagame, had up until the early 1980s considered himself Ugandan.To carry the story forward: in August 1998,Tutsi-led rebels backed by Rwanda, claimed control of two-thirds of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Angolan, Namibian and Zimbabwean troops sent in to support President Kabila. The European nations, including former colonial power Belgium, organized a foreign evacuation. In Rwanda, there are still rumoured to be Hutu rebel movements in the jungle.
165. Perry Miller, Nature's Nation, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1967, p. 17.
166. Ibid., pp. 103, 105.
167. Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1993, p. 403. 31 Liah Greenfeld, The Spirit of Capitalism: Nationalism and Economic Growth, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2003, p. 1.
168. Gaines M. Foster, 'A Christian Nation: Signs of a Covenant', in John Bodnar (ed.), Bonds of Affection: Americans Define their Patriotism, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1996. 33 Quoted in Gary Wills, Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence, Vintage Books, New York, 1979, p. 374. 34 Quoted in Steven Grosby, 'The Nation of the United States and the Vision of Israel', in Roger Michener (ed.), Nationality, Patriotism and Nationalism in Liberal Democratic Societies, Professors of World Peace Academy, St. Paul, MN, 1993, p. 62. 35 Wills, Inventing America, p. xv.
169. Harold R. Isaacs, Idols of the Tribe: Group Identity and Political Change, Harper & Row, New York, 1975. 37 Mark Slouka, 'A Year Later: Notes on America's Intimations of Mortality', Harper's Magazine, September 2002, p. 35. It is an otherwise splendidly provocative article.
170. Carolyn Marvin and David W. Ingle, Blood Sacrifice and the Nation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999.
171. Michael Billig, Banal Nationalism, Sage Publications, London, 1995. 40 Marvin and Ingle, Blood Sacrifice, p. 1.
172. Ibid., pp. 22-3. This is the subject of their Chapter 9.
173. Ibid., compare, for example, pages 22 and 192; 19 and 22; 29, 25, 42, 43 and 11; 42-3 and numer- ous discussions of the flag's textual representations; 20 and 29; 32, 54 and 215.
174. James Kurth, 'The Post-Modern State', The National Interest, no. 28, 1992, pp. 26-35. The article is full of historical distortions and methodological faux pas. (With thanks to Andy Butfoy for this reference.) 44 First reported in The Age (26 March 1993), and later reproduced in full as Don Watson, 'Birth of a Post- Modern Nation', The Australian (24 July 1993).
175. Goenawan Mohamad, 'Australia by Name, Postmodernist by Nature', Sunday Age, 12 July 1992. 46 For a further example see Jacques Derrida's discussion of how France assigns for herself the exem- plary'task and avant-garde position in advancing the subsumption of the European nations within the post- national setting of `Europe': The Other Heading, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1992, pp. 49-54. 47
176. Watson, 'Birth of a Post-Modern Nation'. 48 The Australian, 4 November 1993. 49 It almost goes without saying given the previous chapter that 'it' is shorthand for the patterns of prac- tices and discourses of the many persons (intellectually-trained agents) who work in the many apparatuses which we call the 'state'. Using the shorthand references is not necessarily to imply that 'the state' operates as a single homogenous entity, nor to reify 'it' as a hypostatized object acting organically or anthropomorphically.
177. As I argued in Chapter 9, contrary to some of the more pedantic postmodernists, such designations as 'state' and 'society' continue to be useful.
178. David Lyon, The Electronic Eye: The Rise of the Surveillance Society, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1994;
179. David Lyon, Surveillance after September 11, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2003.
180. Christian Jacob, 'Mapping in the Mind: The Earth from Ancient Alexandria', in Denis Cosgrove, Mappings, Reaktion Books, London, 1999; William Arthur Heidal, The Frame of the Ancient Greek Maps, Arno Press, New York, 1976.
181. Asa Briggs and Peter Burke, A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2002.
182. See for example, Ulrich Beck's presumptive and therefore unhelpful definition of globalization as denot- ing 'the processes through which sovereign national states are criss-crossed and undermined' (What is Globalization? Polity Press, Cambridge, 2000, p. 11).
183. Michael Freeman, 'Theories of Ethnicity, Tribalism and Nationalism' in Kenneth Christie (ed.), Ethnic Conflict, Tribal Politics: A Global Perspective, Curzon Press, Richmond, 1998, p. 27.
184. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1996.
185. See Geoff Sharp, 'An Overview for the Next Millennium', Arena Journal, new series no. 9, 1997, pp. 1-8. 11 The classic early statement on the fragmentations of postmodernity by a structuralist is Fredric Jameson's 'Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism' republished as chapter 1 of Postmodernism or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, Verso, London, 1991. Similarly, David Harvey's The Condition of Postmodernity, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1989, is a brilliant attempt to theorize the structures of the changing world, but he still falls back upon the postmodernist language of fragmentation without providing us with an account of the levels at which fragmentation actually occurs.
186. Scott Lash and John Urry, The End of Organized Capitalism, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1987; Claus Offe, Disorganized Capitalism, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1985. 13 The Australian, 12 July 2002.
187. Manfred Steger, Globalism: The New Market Ideology, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, MD, 2002, p. 17. 15 Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson, Globalization in Question, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2nd edn, 1999.
188. Waters, Globalization; Martin Albrow, The Global Age: State and Society Beyond Modernity, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1996.
189. Harold James, The End of Globalisation: Lessons from the Great Depression, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001.
190. John Gray, London School of Economics, cited in The Economist, 29 September 2001.
191. Richard Langhorne, The Coming of Globalization: Its Evolutionary and Contemporary Consequences, Palgrave, Basingstoke, 2001, p. 2. 20 Ibid., pp. xi-xii.
192. Anthony Giddens, Runaway World: How Globalisation is Reshaping Our Lives, Profile Books, London, 2nd edn, 2002, p. 10 and pp. 12-13. This descent into methodological incoherence does not compare well with his overall position presented in the two volumes of A Critique of Historical Materialism. There he posited a gen- tly modified mode-of-production argument in intersection with an emphasis on the mode of organization: the extension of allocative resources under conditions of capitalism/industrialism. 22 Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, Chapters 1-2. 23 Figures from cyberatlas.com and neilsen-netratings.com See also Armand Mattelart, Networking the World: 1794-2000, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 2000; and David Held,Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1999, Chapter 7. 24 Robin Cohen, The New Helots: Migrants in the International Division of Labour, Gower, Aldershot, 1987;
193. Stephen Castles, Ethnicity and Globalization, Sage Publications, London, 2000. 25 Hirst and Thompson, Globalization in Question, Chapter 2; Held, et al., Global Transformations (1999), Chapter 6. 26 Wantok is Papua New Guinean Pidgin for one who speaks the same language. 27 Justin Rosenberg, The Follies of Globalisation Theory, Verso, London, 2000, p. 63.
194. Saskia Sassen, 'Digital Networks and the State', Theory, Culture & Society, vol. 17, no. 4, 2000, pp. 19-33. 29 Hirst and Thompson, Globalization in Question, p. 29. 30 From the opening article of the special lift-out on globalization by The Economist, 29 September 2001. 31 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Globalisation: Keeping the Gains, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 2003, p. 1. 32 The following section recontextualizes research that I first did for a chapter in Phillip Darby (ed.), At the Edge of International Relations: Postcolonialism, Gender and Dependency, Pinter, London, 1997. 33 UN annual development report figures reported in The Guardian, 9 July 2003. 34 Going back to the early period of writings on globalization, see, for example, Robert Keohane's highly regarded text, After Hegemony: Co-operation and Discord in the World Economy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1984. Despite the title of his book, he devotes a grand total of two paragraphs to what he calls 'negative reciprocity', that is, 'attempts to maximize utility at the expense of others' (ibid., p. 128). There were of course exceptions. See for example, Samir Amin, Maldevelopment: Anatomy of a Global Failure, Zed Books, London, 1990.
195. Reading Aijaz Ahmad's essay, 'Three Worlds Theory', is instructive on the contradictory political layers of meaning in the term 'the Third World' -from In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures, Verso, London, 1992 -but I use it here nevertheless as a collective noun naming the very diverse regions and nation-states that were his- torically not included in the industrial capitalist and industrial (post)communist 'worlds'. Its use here presumes no homogeneity, no hierarchy of centrality, and no sense of a continuing political bloc. 36 During the 1990s, when Benetton had 6,500 shops in 100 countries, a turnover of $US2.3 billion, and an advertising budget of $US80 million, it used images of South American toddlers working as slave labourers in a brick yard to promote Luciano Benetton's concept 'of a world without borders'. The aid agency World Vision continues to advertise its project by using images of poverty-stricken Third World children asking Westerners to sponsor individual cases. 37 The title of Chapter 4 in P.T. Bauer, Equality, the Third World and Economic Delusion, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1981.
196. Trust, Hamish Hamilton, London, 1995, p. 27 (his emphasis). See also Fukuyama's The End of History and the Last Man, Free Press, New York, 1992.
197. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2000.
198. Christopher Chase-Dunn, Global Formation: Structures of World Economy, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 207-10. 41 For a discussion of levels of extension in relation to the changing form of the economy, see John Hinkson, 'Postmodern Economy: Value, Self-Formation and Intellectual Practice', Arena Journal, new series no. 1, 1993, pp. 23-44. 42 News Corporation Annual Report, 2002, p. 6.
199. James Goodman (ed.), Protest and Globalisation: Prospects for Transnational Solidarity, Pluto Press, Sydney, 2002. For example, while Damian Grenfell's chapter in that volume, 'Environmentalism, State Power and "National Interests''', argues that there is a strong need for social movements to develop a global 'public sphere', it recognizes that an alternative politics requires much more.
200. Gianni Vattimo, The Transparent Society, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1992, p. 4. Cf. the writings of Walter D. Mignolo who rightly continues to emphasize the continuing relevance of colonialism: Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges and Border Thinking, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2000. 45 Gyorgy Scrinis, Colonizing the Seed: Genetic Engineering and Techno-Industrial Agriculture, Friends of the Earth, Melbourne, 1995; and Jeremy Seabrook, Victims of Development, Verso, London, 1993, Chapter 7, 'Replacing the Biosphere'.
201. Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture, Routledge, London, 1994, ch. 9; Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1977; Ahmad, In Theory, pp. 128-9.
202. For a useful discussion of the relevance of a non-reductive 'modes of production' approach to the study of international relations see Robert Cox, Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History, Columbia University Press, New York, 1987.
203. Jameson, Postmodernism or, the Cultural Logic, p. 36.
204. Theda Skocpol, 'Wallerstein's World Capitalist System: A Theoretical and Historical Critique,' in Mitchell Seligson and John Passé-Smith (eds), Development and Underdevelopment: The Political Economy of Inequality, Lynne Reinner Publishers, Boulder, CO, 1993, p. 236.
205. Phillip Darby, 'Postcolonialism', in his edited collection, At the Edge of International Politics, Continuum, London, 1997.
206. From Cool Memories, cited in David Slater, 'Exploring other Zones of the Postmodern', in Ali Rattansi and Sallie Westwood, eds, Racism, Modernity and Identity on the Western Front, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1994, p. 95. 52 Frantz Fanon The Wretched of the Earth, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1977, p. 30. See also Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, Souvenir Press, London, 1974; and Octave Mannoni, Prospero and Caliban, Frederick Praeger, New York, 1964.
207. Giddens, Runaway World, p. xxix. 54 The metaphor of the genie is not really any different from the metaphor of the juggernaut used by Anthony Giddens (The Consequences of Modernity, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990) or the Hindu god Shiva used by Manfred Steger (Globalism: The New Market Ideology, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, MD, 2002. It is used here because, it highlights historical tensions of meaning that are relevant to globalization: in this instance between the evil genie of the darker Arabian tales and the rock-and-roll cowboy-style genie of Hollywood's Aladdin. 55 The Economist, 29 September 2001.
208. 7 This point qualifies the argument of Anatol Lieven, America Right or Wrong: An Anatomy of American Nationalism, HarperCollins, London, 2004. I acknowledge his point about the two nationalisms -the 'American creed' of extending civic democratic virtue and the 'American antithesis' of bellicose chauvinism -but also I want to suggest that these ideologies are cross-cut by subjectivities of globalism.
209. Craig Calhoun, 'The Class Consciousness of Frequent Travellers: Towards a Critique of Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism', in Daniel Archibugi (ed.), Debating Cosmopolitics, Verso, London, 2003, p. 211.
210. I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority, Lynne Reinner, Boulder, CO, 1995.
211. See Leanne Reinke's chapter in James Goodman (ed.), Protest and Globalisation: Prospects for Transnational Solidarity, Pluto Press, Sydney, 2002, and Walter D. Mignolo, 'The Zapatistas's Theoretical Revolution: Its Historical, Ethical, and Political Consequences', Review, vol. 25, no. 3, 2002, pp. 245-75. 11 Geoff Kitney and David Lague, 'The Seeds of War', The Age, 17 April 1999.
212. Appadurai, Modernity at Large, p. 166. 13 Ibid.
213. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1987. The term is in fact not very satisfactory but it points to processes of the abstraction of space, part of the more general trend towards the abstraction of categories of social being including space, time and embodiment. This does not mean that the nation-state is about to disappear: it means that its 'classical' modern variant is under challenge. 15
214. Noel Malcolm, Kosovo: A Short History, Macmillan Publishers, London, 1998.
215. Tim Judah, 'Kosovo's Road to War', Survival, vol. 41, no. 2, 1999, pp. 5-18.
216. Appadurai, Modernity at Large, Chapter 8, 'Patriotism and Its Futures'.
217. Bruce Robbins ('Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism', in Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins, eds, Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1998, p. 3) represents a critical cosmopolitanism that largely avoids the valorization of mobility and detachment endemic in postmodern cosmopolitanisms, but in criticizing its critics he occasionally falls off the balancing beam. Pheng Cheah's introductory chapter 'The Cosmopolitical -Today' in the same volume turns the critique back on the postnationalists, convincingly arguing that cosmopolitanism need not be postnational. 19 Appadurai, Modernity at Large, p. 159.
218. David Campbell, National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity and Justice in Bosnia, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1998, p. 13. 21 The quote comes from Appadurai (Modernity at Large, p. 169) but the sentiment ranges widely from postmodernists to radical liberals: for examples of the latter group, see from the Left, Jean-Marie Guéhenno, The End of the Nation-State, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1995; and from the Right, Kenichi Ohmae, The End of the Nation State: The Rise of Regional Economies, HarperCollins, London, 1996. 22 Appadurai, Modernity at Large, p. 170.
219. Iris Marion Young, 'The Ideal of Community and the Politics of Difference', in Linda J. Nicholson (ed.), Feminism/Postmodernism, Routledge, New York, 1990.
220. Julia Kristeva, Nations without Nationalism, Columbia University Press, New York, 1993, p. 3.
221. Young, 'Ideal of Community', pp. 317 and 318. By contrast, see Robyn Eckersley's reconciliation of com- munitarianism and cosmopolitanism: 'Communitarianism', in Andrew Dobson and Robyn Eckersley (eds), Political Theory and the Ecological Challenge, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005. 26
222. Robbins, 'Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism', p. 3 (emphasis added).
223. Ibid. 28 And even then as Robbins writes in another essay in Cosmopolitics ('Comparative Cosmopolitanism', p. 253), 'Hidden away in the miniaturizing precision of "locality" with its associations of presence and unique- ness, empirical concreteness, complex experience, and accessible subjectivity, has been the nostalgia for a col- lective subject-in-action that is no longer so easy to localize.' It should be said that in many ways I like the approach taken by Robbins. In pointing to the (minor) slips and slides in his position I am more concerned about them as indicative of more general problems beyond the text than on the philosophical complexities of 'place', see Edward S. Casey, The Fate of Place: A Philosophical History, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1998. On the levels of theoretical abstraction from which one can examine a particular local place, see Elspeth Probyn, 'Travels in the Postmodern: Making Sense of the Local', in Linda J. Nicholson (ed.), Feminism/Postmodernism, Routledge, New York, 1990.
224. Hildegarde Hannum (ed.), People, Land, and Community, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1997;
225. William Vitek and Wes Jackson (eds), Rooted in the Land: Essays on Community and Place, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1996.
226. Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992, p. 11. 31 Kearney, Postnationalist Ireland, p. 23.
227. Tom Nairn, The Break-Up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism, Verso, London (1973), 2nd edn, 1981, pp. 348-9. 33 There is no hyphen here in 'nation state' to signify the contemporary reconstitution of the classical modern assumption of the hyphenated unity one-nation-for-one-state.
228. Appiah's argument for 'rooted cosmpolitanism' is based on the defence of the liberal freedom to have elective affinities. It is, in his words, a 'distinctively American tradition'. He writes: 'Those of us who are American not by birth but by election, … love this country precisely for that freedom of self-invention' (Kwame Anthony Appiah, 'Cosmopolitan Patriots', in Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins (eds), Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1998, p. 106.)
229. For Rorty's postmodern patriotism, a kind of postnationalism that at once allows him to romanticize and be utterly critical of the politics of his nation state, America, see his Achieving Our Country, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998. As Michael Billig notes: 'Rorty directly associates himself with Dewey's vision of America: "I see America pretty much as Whitman and Dewey did, as opening up a prospect of illimitable demo- cratic vistas"' (Banal Nationalism, Sage Publications, London, 1995, p. 170). Billig continues: 'In such writings it is possible to identify a tone suited to the new Pax Americana. The philosophy distances itself from the rhetoric of the Cold War is … [At the same time, the] American way -the way of non-ideological pragmatism - is recommended for all' (p. 172). I'm afraid, for all Rorty's ironical distance from that thing called 'America', I agree with Billig.
230. Appadurai, Modernity at Large, pp. 175-6.
231. See David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change, Basil
232. Blackwell, Oxford, 1989; and also Manuel Castells, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture: Vol. 1, The Rise of the Network Society, Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, MA, 1996.
233. Simon Cooper, 'Perpetual War within the State of Exception', Arena Journal, New Series, no. 21, 2003/04, pp. 99-125;
234. Lyon, David, Surveillance after September 11, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2003. 39
235. Rocky IV, 1985, a United Artists film, written and directed by Sylvester Stallone. 40 Criticism is reserved for those unethical individuals perverting the system who fail to live up to the abstract ideals of life, liberty and the American way. Usually these individuals and their cronies are exposed by the Harrison Ford or Denzel Washington hero. 41 The term 'postnational nation' may sound oxymoronic, but it is explicable in terms of a levels argument that treats modernism (which frames the experience of bounded national community) and postmodernism (which frames the experience of heterogeneous multicultural society) as contradictory formations overlaying each other and coexisting in the same world-time. 42 The term 'global nation' comes from John Wiseman's book of the same name: Global Nation? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.
236. Bhabha, Location of Culture, p. 172. 44 The editors of Arena Journal including Geoff Sharp, John Hinkson and Simon Cooper work with a frame- work of understanding, the constitutive abstraction approach, which puts the emphasis on the lived process of intersecting levels of abstraction. As one way of giving this approach more specificity I have attempted here to distinguish different levels of epistemological abstraction (from empirical generalization through integrational analysis to categorical analysis) and different levels of ontological abstraction (from the face-to-face to the dis- embodied). It is not necessarily a way of working though the constitutive abstraction approach with which all the editors are comfortable. What I am attempting to do here is connected to my previous work, with the levels of ethical abstraction cross-cutting with levels of epistemological and ontological abstraction. See Table 4.5 above. 45 Ontological socialism is defined as a form of social inter-relations that negotiates its practical expres- sions -cultural, political and economic -across the full range of what it has historically meant to be human from the level of procedural rights to the much more basic questions of co-existence as mortal embodied beings born of both nature and culture. See Chapter 4.
237. Bryan S. Turner and Chris Rojek, Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity, Sage Publications, London, 2001.
238. See Micheline Ishay, The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2004.
239. Joan C. Tronto, Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care, Routledge, New York, 1993. There are lots of departures from such writings in the present Chapter.
240. See, for example, Gerry Gill, 'Landscape as Symbolic Form: Remembering Thick Place in Deep Time', Critical Horizons, vol. 3, no. 2, 2002, pp. 177-99; and William M. Adams and Martin Mulligan, Decolonizing Nature: Strategies for Conservation in a Post-Colonial Era, Earthscan, London, 2003.
241. See, for example, Robyn Eckersley (The Green State: Rethinking Democracy and Sovereignty, MIT Press, Cambridge MA, 2004) for a brilliant exposition of how this foundational principle should make a difference at the level of institutional politics.
242. Teresa Brennan, Globalization and its Terrors: Daily Life in the West, Routledge, London, 2003, p. 164 (her emphasis).
243. Terry Eagleton, 'Five Types of Identity and Difference', in David Bennett (ed.), Multicultural States: Rethinking Difference and Identity, Routledge, London, p. 50.
244. Claus Offe and Rolfe G. Heinze, Beyond Employment: Time, Work and the Informal Economy, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1992.
245. Geoff Sharp, 'Constitutive Abstraction and Social Practice', Arena, 70, 1985, pp. 48-82. The irony here is that under the rubric of the 'ideology of autonomy', market relations in fact set up unacknowledged struc- tures of authority (power) which limit the de facto freedoms of people in ways that close-knit communities could not sustain. 56 Within the Arena circle of writers, it is Nonie Sharp who has done most to elaborate the concept of reciprocity -mostly in relation to tribal society. See her book The Stars of Tagai, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra, 1993.This paragraph and part of the next are a rewriting of an earlier article of mine: 'Reconstituting Work', in Arena Journal, no. 10, 1998, pp. 85-111. Select Bibliography
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